Allergic bronchopulmonary mycosis due to Schizophyllum commune in a patient with chronic hepatitis B.

INTRODUCTION: Schizophyllum commune (S. commune) is an opportunistic pathogenic fungus and can cause infection of the respiratory system in immunocompromised hosts. Allergic bronchopulmonary mycosis (ABPM) is the major disease caused by S. commune. However, identification of S. commune using routine mycological diagnostic methods is difficult. It is easy to make mistakes in diagnosis and treatment, resulting in deterioration of the disease. We report the first case of ABPM due to S. commune in a Chinese patient with chronic hepatitis B. CASE PRESENTATION: The patient presented cough, sputum and dyspnea for six months. The pathogen was missed during routine laboratory workup. We performed bronchoscopy examination and bronchoalveolar lavage. S. commune was identified by metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) of bronchial alveolar lavage fluid (BALF). Hence, the patient was immediately treated with 200 mg voriconazole twice daily (intravenous infusion) and 20 mg prednisone once a day (oral therapy), along with oral entecavir for hepatitis B. There was no recurrence of infection after the medication was discontinued. CONCLUSIONS: S. commune infection should be considered in the diagnosis of patients with refractory cough, sputum and dyspnea, especially in immunocompromised individuals. The mNGS technique is an effective supplementary technique for the diagnosis of S. commune infection, enabling precise clinical decision-making and appropriate treatment. Most patients have good prognosis with a combination of proper antifungal therapy and hormonal therapy.

Anti-Inflammatory Sesquiterpenes from Fruiting Bodies of Schizophyllum commune.

Schizophyllum commune, a fleshy fungus, is an important medicinal and food-homologous mushroom in China. In this work, eight undescribed sesquiterpenes schizomycins A-H (1-8) and one new meroterpenoid schizomycin I (9) together with three known analogues (10-12) were isolated from fruiting bodies of S. commune. Their planar structures were established by extensive spectroscopic and mass spectrometric data. The absolute configurations of compounds 1, 2, and 4 were determined by single crystal X-ray diffraction, and compounds 3 and 5-9 were confirmed by electronic circular dichroism calculations. Anti-inflammatory activities of all isolated compounds were evaluated for their inhibitory effects on IL-6 and IL-1ß production in RAW 264.7 cells. Among them, compound 7 exhibited significant IL-6 inhibitory activity with an IC50 value of 3.6 µM. The results of molecular docking showed that compound 7 interacts with amino acid residues (Gly117, Lys118, Asp120, Thr166, and Try168) of the IL-6 receptor protein through hydrogen bonding.

Emulsion for stabilizing ß-carotene and curcumin prepared directly using a continuous phase of polysaccharide-rich Schizophyllum commune fermentation broth.

In this study, we examined the effect of Schizophyllum commune fermentation broth (SCFB) rich in polysaccharides (SCFP) on the stability and bioaccessibility of ß-carotene and curcumin. An SCFB-stabilized oil-in-water (o/w) emulsion (SCFBe) was prepared using SCFB as the continuous phase, and then evaluated for storage stability using an SCFP-based emulsion (SCFPe) as the control. The findings revealed that SCFBe is more stable at 60 °C than SCFPe, and stratification or droplet size varied at differing pH levels (3-9) and concentrations of Na+ (0.1-0.5 M) and Ca2+ (0.01-0.05 M). Since the absolute value of the zeta potential of SCFBe is much lower at 60 °C than that at 4 °C and 25 °C, a higher temperature (60 °C) may enhance the reactivity of polysaccharides and proteins in SCFB to improve the stability of SCFBe. Both the protective impact of SCFB on functional food molecules and their capacity to block lipid oxidation increased as polysaccharide content improved. The bioaccessibility of ß-carotene after in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion is 11.18 %-12.28 %, whereas that of curcumin is 31.64 %-33.00 %. By fermenting edible and medicinal fungi in liquid, we created a unique and environmentally friendly approach for getting food-grade emulsifiers without extraction.

Schizophyllan from Schizophyllum commune BRM 060008: Potential application as an inhibitor of lipase.

ß-D-glucan has significant implications in regulating lipid metabolism and preventing diseases associated with lipid accumulation. Schizophyllan (SPG) from Schizophyllum commune fungus is a commercially important ß-glucan with applications in the health food industry, pharmacy, and cosmetics. However, SPG was obtained by submerged culture of the wood-rotting and filamentous fungus S. commune BRM 060008, which may have been isolated from the Cerrado Biome of Brazil. In this study, to confirm that the polysaccharide produced by BRM 060008 strain fermentation was indeed (1→3)(1→6)-ß-D-glucan, it was purified and characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, high-performance size exclusion chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance, and methylation analysis. The polysaccharide produced was identified as the ß-D-glucan expected with a high molecular weight (1.093 × 106 g/mol) and the thermogravimetric analysis indicated a maximum degradation temperature of ~324 °C and a 60 % residual weight, lower than commercial SPG. The molecular structure and thermal properties of the ß-D-glucan were similar to the commercial sample. Additionally, the in vitro pancreatic lipase inhibitory activity was evaluated, investigating anti-obesity and anti-lipidemic properties. The results showed unprecedented lipase inhibition activity to SPG prepared using the S. commune strain BRM 060008, making it promising for food and pharmaceutical applications.

Biological Synthesis, Characterization, and Therapeutic Potential of S. commune-Mediated Gold Nanoparticles.

Green-synthesized gold nanoparticles demonstrate several therapeutic benefits due to their safety, non-toxicity, accessibility, and ecological acceptance. In our study, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were created using an extracellular extract from the fungus Schizophyllum commune (S. commune). The reaction color was observed to be a reddish pink after a 24 h reaction, demonstrating the synthesis of the nanoparticles. The myco-produced nanoparticles were investigated using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and UV-visible spectroscopy. The TEM pictures depicted sphere-like shapes with sizes ranging from 60 and 120 nm, with an average diameter of 90 nm, which is in agreement with the DLS results. Furthermore, the efficiency of the AuNPs' antifungal and cytotoxic properties, as well as their production of intracellular ROS, was evaluated. Our findings showed that the AuNPs have strong antifungal effects against Trichoderma sp. and Aspergillus flavus at increasing doses. Additionally, the AuNPs established a dose-dependent activity against human alveolar basal epithelial cells with adenocarcinoma (A549), demonstrating the potency of synthesized AuNPs as a cytotoxic agent. After 4 h of incubation with AuNPs, a significant increase in intracellular ROS was observed in cancer cells. Therefore, these metallic AuNPs produced by fungus (S. commune) can be used as an effective antifungal, anticancer, and non-toxic immunomodulatory delivery agent.

Antifungal Activity of Medicinal Mushrooms and Optimization of Submerged Culture Conditions for Schizophyllum commune (Agaricomycetes).

The main goal of the present study was the exploration of the antifungal properties of Agaricomycetes mushrooms. Among twenty-three tested mushrooms against A. niger, B. cinerea, F. oxysporum, and G. bidwellii, Schizophyllum commune demonstrated highest inhibition rates and showed 35.7%, 6.5%, 50.4%, and 66.0% of growth inhibition, respectively. To reveal culture conditions enhancing the antifungal potential of Sch. commune, several carbon (lignocellulosic substrates among them) and nitrogen sources and their optimal concentrations were investigated. Presence of 6% mandarin juice production waste (MJPW) and 6% of peptone in nutrient medium promoted antifungal activity of selected mushroom. It was determined that, extracts obtained in the presence of MJPW effectively inhibited the grow of pathogenic fungi. Moreover, the content of phenolic compounds in the extracts obtained from Sch. commune grown on MJPW was several times higher (0.87 ± 0.05 GAE/g to 2.38 ± 0.08 GAE/g) than the extracts obtained from the mushroom grown on the synthetic (glycerol contained) nutrient medium (0.21 ± 0.03 GAE/g to 0.88 ± 0.05 GAE/g). Flavonoid contents in the extracts from Sch. commune varied from 0.58 ± 0.03 to 27.2 ± 0.8 mg QE/g. Identification of phenolic compounds composition in water and ethanol extracts were provided by mass spectrometry analysis. Extracts demonstrate considerable free radical scavenging activities and the IC50 values were generally low for the extracts, ranging from 1.9 mg/ml to 6.7 mg/ml. All the samples displayed a positive correlation between their concentration (0.05-15.0 mg/ml) and DPPH radical scavenging activity. This investigation revealed that Sch. commune mushroom has great potential to be used as a source of antifungal and antioxidant substances.

Anaerobic production and biosynthesis mechanism of exopolysaccharides in Schizophyllum commune 20R-7-F01.

Exopolysaccharides (EPS) produced by microorganisms play a vital role in physiological and ecological processes. However, the mechanisms of EPS synthesis and release in anaerobic environments remain poorly understood. Here, we provide the first evidence of anaerobic EPS synthesis by the fungus Schizophyllum commune 20R-7-F01, isolated from coal-bearing sediments ~2.0 km below the seafloor. Under anaerobic conditions, the fungus exhibited significantly higher specific EPS production (1.57 times) than under aerobic conditions. Transcriptomic analysis revealed 2057 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the strain cultured anaerobically for 7 days compared to aerobically. Among these genes, 642 were significantly upregulated, while 1415 were significantly downregulated, mainly associated with carbon metabolism pathways. Genes involved in glycolysis and EPS synthesis, including hexokinase (HK), phosphoglucomutase (PGM), and (1 â†’ 3)-ß-glucan synthase (GLS), were significantly upregulated, while those related to the TCA cycle, respiratory chain, and pentose phosphate pathway were downregulated under anaerobic conditions. These findings highlight the oxygen-dependent regulation of EPS synthesis and suggest that EPS may serve as a key mechanism for fungal adaptation to anaerobic environments.

Functional characterization of a lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase from Schizophyllum commune that degrades non-crystalline substrates.

Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) are mono-copper enzymes that use O2 or H2O2 to oxidatively cleave glycosidic bonds. LPMOs are prevalent in nature, and the functional variation among these enzymes is a topic of great interest. We present the functional characterization of one of the 22 putative AA9-type LPMOs from the fungus Schizophyllum commune, ScLPMO9A. The enzyme, expressed in Escherichia coli, showed C4-oxidative cleavage of amorphous cellulose and soluble cello-oligosaccharides. Activity on xyloglucan, mixed-linkage ß-glucan, and glucomannan was also observed, and product profiles differed compared to the well-studied C4-oxidizing NcLPMO9C from Neurospora crassa. While NcLPMO9C is also active on more crystalline forms of cellulose, ScLPMO9A is not. Differences between the two enzymes were also revealed by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) titration studies showing that, in contrast to NcLPMO9C, ScLPMO9A has higher affinity for linear substrates compared to branched substrates. Studies of H2O2-fueled degradation of amorphous cellulose showed that ScLPMO9A catalyzes a fast and specific peroxygenase reaction that is at least two orders of magnitude faster than the apparent monooxygenase reaction. Together, these results show that ScLPMO9A is an efficient LPMO with a broad substrate range, which, rather than acting on cellulose, has evolved to act on amorphous and soluble glucans.

ß-(1 → 3)(1 → 6)glucan from Schizophyllum commune 227E.32: High yield production via glucose/xylose co-metabolization.

A co-metabolization of xylose and glucose by Schizophyllum commune 227E.32 wild mushroom for exopolysaccharide (EPS) production is presented. Cultivations performed with S. commune 227E.32 at different xylose concentrations demonstrated that the concentration of 50 g·L-1 of xylose achieved the highest EPS production, around 4.46 g·L-1. Scale-up in a stirred tank reactor (STR) was performed. 10 % inoculum showed the highest cost/benefit ratio regarding sugar conversion and EPS production (Y P/S = 0.90 g·g-1), achieving 1.82 g·L-1 of EPS. Isolation, purification, and characterization were conducted with EPS produced in flasks and STR. GC-MS analysis showed glucose as main monosaccharide constituents for both isolates. 13C NMR and HSQC-edited showed that both EPS isolated consisted of a ß-D-Glcp (1 â†’ 3) main chain, partially substituted at O-6 with nonreducing ß-D-Glcp ends on every third residue, similar to ß-D-glucan isolated from S. commune basidiomes known as schizophyllan (SPG). The Mw was determined by GPC to 1.5 × 106 Da (flasks) and 1.1 × 106 Da (STR). AFM topographs revealed a semi-flexible appearance of the ß-D-glucan, consistent with the triple helical structures adopted by SPG and overall contour length consistent with a high molar mass.

Successful management of nasopharyngitis caused by Schizophyllum commune in a captive cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus).

Herein, we describe the management of nasopharyngitis caused by Schizophyllum commune infection in a captive cheetah. Computed tomography revealed a nodule in the nasal cavity and pharynx, and an endoscopic biopsy was performed. As a result, the nodule was surgically resected because of a suspected carcinoma. However, the surgical specimen was histologically re-evaluated and a fungal granuloma was diagnosed. Sequence analysis of DNA from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded samples revealed S. commune infection. The cheetah was administered fluconazole orally for 73 days. However, the drug was ineffective and itraconazole was administered for 14 days. Symptoms such as nasal discharge and sneezing have completely resolved for 4 years.

Unlocking the benefits of split gill mushroom: Chemical analysis and prebiotic properties of schizophyllan extract.

The edible split gill mushroom is considered both a nutritive and therapeutic superfood, as well as rich in schizophyllan and protein. Prebiotic properties and other biological effects distinguish the schizophyllan (ß-glucan). Thus, this research investigates the identity of the mushroom strain, the nutritional composition of this mushroom, and the schizophyllan extract for further analysis, including its prebiotic activity and so on. The experimental results revealed that this mushroom was identified as Schizophyllum commune, comprising more excellent carbohydrates, protein, crude fiber, lower fat, and no heavy metal detection. Moreover, this extract consisted of pharmaceutical hydrophobin (14.0-18.5 kDa), lectin protein (21-35 kDa), bioactive purpurin or red pigment, including the prebiotic ß-glucan stimulating the proliferation of probiotic bacteria isolated from yogurt. Therefore, both S. commune and the schizophyllan extract can be used as a prebiotic candidate, functional food, and nutraceutical product.

Multiscalar electrical spiking in Schizophyllum commune.

Growing colonies of the split-gill fungus Schizophyllum commune show action potential-like spikes of extracellular electrical potential. We analysed several days of electrical activity recording of the fungus and discovered three families of oscillatory patterns. Very slow activity at a scale of hours, slow activity at a scale of 10 min and very fast activity at scale of half-minute. We simulated the spiking behaviour using FitzHugh-Nagume model, uncovered mechanisms of spike shaping. We speculated that spikes of electrical potential might be associated with transportation of nutrients and metabolites.

Pneumonia caused by Schizophyllum commune in a patient with diabetes: A case report and comprehensive literature review.

RATIONALE: Schizophyllum commune (S. commune) is a basidiomycete bracket fungus that rarely causes invasive fungal infections. It is often misdiagnosed as other invasive fungal disease because of its atypical clinical features. Here we report a case of pneumonia due to S commune and review the relevant literature. PATIENT CONCERNS AND DIAGNOSES: A 55-year-old male with a history of diabetes and poor glycemic control presented with cough and sputum for half a month. Laboratory examination showed elevated peripheral blood eosinophils, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid eosinophils and increased serum total immunoglobulin E. Chest computed tomography revealed a gloved finger sign and consolidation in the middle lobe of the right lung and the upper lobe of the left lung. Bronchoscopy revealed thick white mucous plugs in the left lingular bronchus, which could be removed partially by suctioning. The culture of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and bronchoscopy brush specimens grew cottony white mold in sabouraud dextrose agar. Pneumonia caused by S. commune was diagnosed based on clinical features and microbial methods. INTERVENTIONS AND OUTCOMES: Voriconazole combined with inhaled budesonide and formoterol (inhaled corticosteroids + long-acting ß-2 receptor agonist) were given, and his symptoms improved. The count of peripheral blood eosinophils and serum total immunoglobulin E decreased after 1 month. Repeated chest computed tomography showed remarkable improvement over the previous lesions. LESSONS: Although rarely reported, infections in the lungs caused by S commune should be reminded especially in patients with immunocompromised. This case illustrates the risk factors, clinical symptoms and imaging features of the pneumonia caused by S. commune. It also further highlights the diagnosis and treatment of this disease through reviewing relevant literature.

Production, purification, and characterization of p-diphenol oxidase (PDO) enzyme from lignolytic fungal isolate Schizophyllum commune MF-O5.

Fungi are producers of lignolytic extracellular enzymes which are used in industries like textile, detergents, biorefineries, and paper pulping. This study assessed for the production, purification, and characterization of novel p-diphenol oxidase (PDO; laccase) enzyme from lignolytic white-rot fungal isolate. Fungi samples collected from different areas of Pakistan were initially screened using guaiacol plate method. The maximum PDO producing fungal isolate was identified on the basis of ITS (internal transcribed spacer sequence of DNA of ribosomal RNA) sequencing. To get optimum enzyme yield, various growth and fermentation conditions were optimized. Later PDO was purified using ammonium sulfate precipitation, size exclusion, and anion exchange chromatography and characterized. It was observed that the maximum PDO producing fungal isolate was Schizophyllum commune (MF-O5). Characterization results showed that the purified PDO was a monomeric protein with a molecular mass of 68 kDa and showed stability at lower temperature (30 °C) for 1 h. The Km and Vmax values of the purified PDO recorded were 2.48 mM and 6.20 U/min. Thermal stability results showed that at 30 °C PDO had 119.17 kJ/K/mol Ea value and 33.64 min half-life. The PDO activity was stimulated by Cu2+ ion at 1.0 mM showing enhanced activity up to 111.04%. Strong inhibition effect was noted for Fe2+ ions at 1 mM showing 12.04% activity. The enzyme showed stability against 10 mM concentration oxidizing reducing agents like DMSO, EDTA, H2O2, NaOCl, and urea and retained more than 75% of relative activity. The characterization of purified PDO enzyme confirmed its tolerance against salt, metal ions, organic solvents, and surfactants indicating its ability to be used in the versatile commercial applications.

[Chronic fungal sinusitis caused by Schizophyllum commune]. / Khronicheskii sfenoidit, vyzvannyi gribom Schizophyllum commune.

Treatment of patients with fungal sinusitis, in some cases, does not lead to complete sinus sanitation, which may be due to insufficient surgical intervention and/or incorrectly selected antimycotic therapy. Treatment of such patients must necessarily include the complete removal of fungal masses from the affected sinus and the further use of antimycotics that ensure complete elimination of the pathogen. A clinical case of chronic fungal operated isolated sphenoiditis caused by the fungus Schizophyllum commune is presented. For extensive drainage of the sphenoid sinus, the patient underwent translamellar sphenoidotomy on the right with further antifungal therapy.

The trends in the spread of simple sequence repeats in the genomes of Schizophyllum commune.

Due to their high number and variety, simple sequence repeats in DNA are a valuable source of genetic markers widely used in population genetics, genetic diversity, and fingerprinting. Schizophyllum commune is a cosmopolitan basidiomycete and a valuable object for biotechnology and mycology. It is often used as a model organism in genetic and population studies. Numerous genome sequences of S. commune are available in the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) database, allowing for a meticulous study of the distribution of simple tandem nucleotide repeats in the genomes of different strains, based on their origin. Analysis of the average density of simple tandem repeats in the genomes of S. commune fungi reveals the division of cultures into groups based on the USA, Ru (Russian Federation), and EA (South Korea, Japan, China) populations. Intensive point mutations lead to the accumulation and dominance of mononucleotide (C)n and dinucleotide (CG)n motifs in fungal genomes. Results show that the GCT motif contributes more to the divergence of the Ru population, whereas CTC, GAG, and GGA motifs contribute to the divergence of the USA population. Strains MG53 (China) and IUM1114-SS01 (South Korea: Incheon) from the EA population occupy a separate position, mainly because of the CGA motif. The divergence in quantitative traits of motifs between populations provides evidence of the evolutionary transformation of fungal genomes under environmental factors.

Efficient production and skincare activity evaluation of schizophyllan, a ß-glucan derived from Schizophyllum commune NTU-1.

Schizophyllan (SPG), a ß-glucan produced by the fungus Schizophyllum commune, possesses a ß-(1 â†’ 3)-linked backbone with single ß-(1 â†’ 6)-linked glucose side chains at approximately every third residue. In this study, we screened SPG-producing strains of S. commune from different provinces in China. A candidate strain (NTU-1) with a high SPG yield was chosen, and the fermentation conditions were optimized. The optimal carbon and nitrogen sources were sucrose (40 g/L) and yeast extract (20 g/L), respectively. The optimal conditions for pH and temperature were 5.0 and 28 °C, respectively. Inclusion of 0.2 mg/L of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in the medium further increased the SPG concentration. In a 5-L bioreactor, the fermentation cycle was reduced from the initial seven days to five days, and the concentration of SPG obtained was 21.3 g/L, which is the highest reported to date. In addition, we evaluated the bioactivity of the SPG prepared using strain NTU-1. The results showed that SPG had certain characteristics of anti-oxidation, anti-photoaging, and inhibition of melanin production, making it a promising reagent for skin care.

An endophytic fungus Schizophyllum commune isolated from Panax ginseng enhances hairy roots growth and ginsenoside biosynthesis.

Using endophytic fungal elicitors to increase the accumulation of valuable secondary metabolites in plant tissue culture is an effective biotechnology strategy. In this study, a collection of 56 strains of endophytic fungi were isolated from different organs of cultivated Panax ginseng, of which seven strains can be symbiotically co-cultured with the hairy roots of P. ginseng. Further experiments observed that strain 3R-2, identified as endophytic fungus Schizophyllum commune, can not only infect hairy roots but also promote the accumulation of specific ginsenosides. This was further verified because S. commune colonization significantly affected the overall metabolic profile of ginseng hairy roots. By comparing the effects of S. commune mycelia and its mycelia extract (EM) on ginsenoside production in P. ginseng hairy roots, the EM was confirmed to be a relatively better stimulus elicitor. Additionally, the introduction of EM elicitor can significantly enhance the expressions of key enzyme genes of pgHMGR, pgSS, pgSE, and pgSD involved in the biosynthetic pathway of ginsenosides, which was deemed the most relevant factor for promoting ginsenosides production during the elicitation period. In conclusion, this study is the first to show that the EM of endophytic fungus S. commune can be considered as an effective endophytic fungal elicitor for increasing the biosynthesis of ginsenosides in hairy root cultures of P. ginseng.

Pulmonary infection of Schizophyllum commune diagnosed by metagenomic next- generation sequencing: A case report.

RATIONALE: Fungal infection is common and difficult to be diagnosed timely in clinical, for its various kinds and similar manifestations. The rare pulmonary fungal infection such as Schizophyllum commune was one of the harder ones and misdiagnosed in usual. PATIENT CONCERNS: We report a 32-year-old female which was diagnosed with Metagenomic Next-Generation Sequencing (mNGS). She was hospitalized with the complaint of 4 months and more of repeated cough and expectorating. The chest computer tomography revealed left lower lobe pathological changes, but antibiotics were ineffective. No positive results were found in laboratory tests, including sputum culture and the pathology of lung puncture biopsy. DIAGNOSES: mNGS of lung biopsy was performed and detected the sequence number of Schizophyllum for 11. INTERVENTIONS: The patient was treated with voriconazole and itraconazole successively. OUTCOMES: She recovered to health. There was no recurrence during follow-up. LESSONS: mNGS as a diagnostic method could quickly detect pathogens through the processing of fragment, synthesis, comparison, and analysis of sample genes. It is suitable for detecting especially rare and polymicrobial infections. To our best knowledge, infection of Schizophyllum commune have not been reported in English literature with diagnostic method of mNGS.